Roman Architecture: Everything You Need to Know 

The Roman Empire is often credited as one of the most influential periods in Western history, and perhaps nothing proves this lasting legacy quite like Roman architecture. Inspired by classical architecture in Greece, ancient Romans were responsible for popularizing many elements of our built environment that we now take for granted, like aqueducts, amphitheaters, and even apartment buildings. “Simply stated, Roman architecture is about hegemony,” explains Carolyn Kiernat, AIA, principal at Page & Turnbull, an architectural firm that specializes in historic preservation. “The Romans dominated several different cultures and peoples over a vast empire along the entire Mediterranean and well into Europe. One way they communicated their power was through their buildings and far-reaching public works projects.” In this guide from AD, discover the history of the Roman Empire, study the unique architectural style, and learn about famous Roman architects and their creations.  

What is Roman architecture? 

While in the present day, any building in the Italian city might be called “Roman architecture,” the phrase generally refers to ancient buildings that were built throughout the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire. “The architecture of the Roman Empire dates roughly from the late first century BCE to the fifth century CE,” explains Laura Foster, an architectural historian and professor at John Cabot University in Rome. “Some of the oldest extant Roman architecture dates to the second century BCE, part of the Republican era, though there are elements of infrastructure, like walls, streets and sewers, that are even older.” 

Ancient Roman architecture is seen as a part of classical architecture and generally builds off of the three classical orders—Ionic, Corinthian, and Doric—which were developed in ancient Greece. Later, the ancient Romans added two of their own orders: Composite and Tuscan. Like other classical architecture, the Roman style emphasized proportions and symmetry. 

Still, as Kiernat says, the Romans built to impress—and one of the main ways they did this was through domes, arches, and vaults. “While Greek structures tended to be smaller, Roman buildings were all about grandeur, and the use of arches and domes allowed them to span great distances,” she says. “The Pantheon, for example, with a diameter of about 140 feet, would have been an impossibility for the Greeks.” The use of domes in particular allowed for greater experimentation in height and for the creation of immense volumetric interior spaces. 

The Romans are also generally credited with the widespread use of concrete, which at the time was often made from volcanic ash, lime, and seawater. As Foster adds, this composition of Roman concrete is often still studied because of its impressive longevity. Additionally, Romans “sourced decorative materials from throughout the Empire, like granite and porphyry from Egypt and marble from the Greek islands,” explains Foster. 

Types of Roman buildings

Throughout the empire’s existence, Romans designed and constructed many types of buildings. Consider the following list: 

Amphitheaters—open-air, circular theaters with raised seats—were popular in Ancient Rome. Many types of public events took place within the structures, including gladiator fights and executions. The theaters often included elaborate façades featuring marble or stucco cladding. 

As a polytheistic society, the Romans constructed various temples as tributes to different gods. 

Often credited for one of the greatest feats of engineering in ancient civilization, the Romans are frequently celebrated for constructing intricate networks of aqueducts that carried fresh water to various regions of their territory. Remnants of Roman aqueducts can still be found in Spain, France, Turkey, Greece, and North Africa, the most famous aqueduct being the Pont du Gard. However, it’s worth noting that earlier civilizations in Egypt and India are credited with building the first aqueducts. 

Open-air public baths were a large part of the Roman social scene. Thermae—which comes from the Greek thermos, meaning “hot”—often referred to large, imperial complexes. Balneae, on the other hand, were smaller private or public bathing facilities. 

Built to commemorate significant events or people, triumphal arches were also widespread throughout the Empire, though only three still stand in Rome: the Arch of Titus, Arch of Septimius Severus, and the Arch of Constantine. 

Meaning “island” in Latin, insulae were the ancient Romans’ equivalent to apartment buildings. Most of the urban population lived in this type of housing, ranging from plebeians (members of the lower and middle classes) to equites (members of the upper-middle class). 

The wealthiest Romans typically lived in domus, or large, single-family residences. 

History of Roman architecture

Current historical study of Roman architecture generally begins in 509 BCE with the establishment of the Roman Republic. The Romans were heavily influenced by the people of Greece and Etruria, and as such many of their structures were seen as evolutions of the two previous civilizations’ creations. “In the centuries prior to the beginning of the Roman Empire, there’s a lot of overlap with Etruscan and Greek architecture,” Foster explains. “The Romans borrowed from both in developing building types and their decoration.” Many of the empire’s greatest architectural achievements were spearheaded by the Roman emperors, such as Emperor Hadrian, who took great interest in architecture as part of his imperial restoration program, as well as Vespasian, who oversaw the construction of the Colosseum. 

Aside from being a necessary part of civilization, the architecture throughout the Roman Empire also served another purpose: to intimidate. “Rome’s power relied as much on controlling the citizenry as it did on fending off enemies,” Kiernat says. Full of imposing, symmetrical, unified structures, the buildings served to demonstrate the strength of the Empire to outsiders and to remind Romans of the authority and divine power of the emperor. “To control an empire this vast without high-speed internet is a real challenge,” Kiernat adds. “One way to do this was to ensure every major outpost was a mini Rome, with all the same public buildings.” 

One of the empire’s most famous architects during the first century BCE, Vitruvius, was notable for his writings on architectural theory. In the multivolume work De architectura, he proposed the idea that all buildings should have three attributes: strength, utility, and beauty. This philosophy remained an important part of many architectural works throughout the empire’s rule. 

Of course, many of the architectural elements created throughout the Roman Empire never died. “Roman architecture is alive and well today,” says Kiernat. “In San Francisco, where our firm practices, we have worked on many buildings constructed in the early 20th century that are influenced by Roman architecture.” Banks, for example, often make use of domes, arches, porches, and massive pediments. “One example is One Grant Street in San Francisco, which was designed by Bliss & Faville and built in 1910 as the Savings Union Bank.” 

Defining elements and characteristics of Roman architecture

As Foster explains, defining characteristics of any Roman building depend both on the date of construction and its location within the Empire. “The earliest  examples tend to follow Greek and Etruscan models fairly closely,” she says. “Here we see the application of the classical orders: Doric, Ionic and Corinthian.” During this time, temples were usually frontal and rectangular, and notable examples include the Temple of Portunus in Rome or the Maison Carrée in Nîmes, France. 

Later there was greater experimentation with form, and buildings began to demonstrate sophisticated engineering, particularly in the building materials. At this point, the classic orders weren’t followed as strictly. “There are important examples of this experimentation in the eastern regions of the Empire, such as in modern-day Croatia, Turkey, Jordan and Syria,” Foster explains. “In these structures, the architects disrupted the earlier forms, creating broken pediments, for example, or altering the design of capitals to include other kinds of decorative and symbolic imagery.” 

Due to ancient Rome’s power spanning hundreds of years, there are no defined architectural characteristics seen throughout every building, location, or era. However, there are plenty of characteristics that are common throughout structures from this time. Consider the following list: 

• Concrete structures 
• Arches
• Domes
• Columns
• Buttresses 
• Designs based on symmetry and equal proportions

Famous Roman architecture examples and architects

While not exhaustive, the following list includes a collection of famous ancient Roman structures. 

Responsible for perhaps the most famous example of Roman architecture, the Colosseum’s architect remains unknown. However, it’s been argued that one of Rome’s most famous architects, Apollodorus of Damascus, is the responsible party. Even without a clear auteur, the preservation of the amphitheater makes it a great candidate for study. “The arcaded exterior of the Colosseum demonstrated the use of the  superimposition of the classical orders in its semicolumns and pilasters,” Foster says.

Dedicated to all of the Roman gods, the Pantheon is among the most recognizable Roman temples. Like the Colosseum, it’s important due to its notable preservation, and as Foster adds, “the Pantheon has always fascinated for the careful proportions of the interior and the volume of the space, with its coffered dome and large oculus open to the sky.” The building sits on a site of an earlier temple, which had been built during Emperor Augustus’s reign. Now the structure serves as a Catholic church. 

Apollodorus of Damascus was responsible for the last imperial fora: the Forum of Trajan. One of a series of public squares, the fora are near the Roman Forum, though they are not a part of it. 

Foster says both the Baths of Caracalla and the Baths of Diocletian are among the most notable Roman baths. “Both are so impressive in their scale, while they also carefully manipulated the internal spaces for the different functions served—not only bathing, but spaces for exercising, libraries, and even theaters,” she says.