WHO BUILT THE STONEHENGE MONUMENT?

Oguzhan Polat

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Dec 13, 2023

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Determining the architects behind the enigmatic Stonehenge monument remains one of the most intriguing archaeological puzzles. The prevailing consensus, based on extensive research and archaeological evidence, points to its construction by the Neolithic peoples of the British Isles around 3000 to 2000 BC.

Archaeological and Anthropological Insights

Recent advancements in archaeological methods have provided deeper insights into the Neolithic society in Britain. These communities were agrarian, having transitioned from hunter-gatherer lifestyles, and exhibited sophisticated social structures and religious practices. The construction of Stonehenge, therefore, aligns with their capability to organize large-scale projects.

Excavations in and around Stonehenge have unearthed a variety of artifacts, including tools, pottery, and human remains. These findings suggest a society with established cultural and ritualistic practices, likely centered around ancestor worship, the changing seasons, and the movements of celestial bodies.

Genetic Analysis and Migration Patterns

Genetic analysis of Neolithic human remains in Britain has shed light on the migration patterns during this period. Studies indicate a significant influx of people from the continent, primarily from regions around present-day Turkey, who brought with them farming practices and megalithic building knowledge. This migration wave likely played a crucial role in the construction of Stonehenge, introducing new cultural and architectural ideas.

Architectural and Engineering Skills

The sheer scale and precision of Stonehenge testify to the advanced architectural and engineering skills of its builders. The monument’s layout aligns with celestial events, like solstices and equinoxes, indicating a sophisticated understanding of astronomy. The arrangement of stones suggests knowledge of practical geometry and an ability to organize and mobilize significant labor forces.

Radiocarbon Dating and Chronology

Radiocarbon dating of materials from the site has been instrumental in piecing together the timeline of Stonehenge’s construction. This method has revealed that the construction of Stonehenge occurred in phases over several centuries, reflecting a long-term commitment and continuity in cultural practices.

Cultural Significance and Social Organization

Stonehenge’s grandeur and complexity point to a deeply symbolic cultural and religious significance for its builders. Its construction would have required not just physical resources but also a hierarchical social structure capable of planning, coordinating, and sustaining such a monumental endeavor over generations.

WHAT IS STONEHENGE AND WHAT IS IT FOR?

Stonehenge, an iconic prehistoric monument, is a testament to the remarkable capabilities of ancient societies. Located on Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, England, this structure comprises a series of standing stones arranged in concentric circles and horseshoe shapes, with the oldest part of the monument estimated to be over 5,000 years old.

Architectural Composition

The site consists of several distinct elements:

1. Sarsen Stones: The larger sarsen stones, some standing over 30 feet tall and weighing up to 25 tons, form the outer circle and horseshoe shape. They are topped with lintel stones, creating a continuous run of architrave-like features.
2. Bluestones: Smaller bluestones, likely transported from Wales, are set inside the sarsen circle. Their origin adds to the monument’s mystery, suggesting a well-organized effort and significant labor investment.
3. Aubrey Holes and Other Features: The Aubrey Holes (circular pits around the perimeter), postholes, and cremation burials within the site provide evidence of the monument’s evolving use over millennia.

Purpose and Function

1. Astronomical Observatory: Stonehenge’s alignment with the summer and winter solstices indicates its use as an astronomical observatory. This alignment suggests a deep understanding of celestial movements and their significance in Neolithic culture.
2. Ceremonial and Ritualistic Site: Archaeological findings, including human remains and artifacts, point towards Stonehenge being a site of ceremonial significance, possibly related to ancestor worship, healing rituals, or rites of passage.
3. Burial Ground: Analysis of human remains indicates that Stonehenge served as a burial ground for several centuries, starting from its earliest phase. This aspect highlights the monument’s role in the community’s spiritual and ancestral veneration practices.

Cultural and Social Context

1. Neolithic Society and Stonehenge: The construction of Stonehenge reflects the social and religious dynamics of Neolithic societies. The effort required for its construction implies a well-organized community with complex social structures capable of planning and executing large-scale projects.
2. Symbolism and Cosmology: Stonehenge’s design and alignment with solar events point to its role in the cosmological beliefs of its builders. It likely served as a physical manifestation of their understanding of the universe and their place within it.
3. Technological Marvel of Prehistoric Engineering: The transportation of bluestones from distant locations and the precision of the stone arrangements reflect advanced technological skills for the time. The construction techniques demonstrate a sophisticated understanding of engineering and geometry.

Evolving Interpretations

Recent archaeological methods, such as geophysical surveys and laser scanning, have provided new insights into Stonehenge’s construction and use. These methods have uncovered additional features and burial sites, suggesting that the monument’s purpose evolved over time, adapting to the changing cultural and social needs of its users.

80 STONES IN THE STONEHENGE MONUMENT

The Stonehenge monument, renowned for its imposing ring of standing stones, consists originally of about 80 stones. These megaliths, primarily sarsen stones and bluestones, form the core of this prehistoric structure. Despite the passage of millennia, the remaining stones still evoke a sense of awe and mystery regarding their purpose and the techniques used in their placement.

Composition and Arrangement

1. Sarsen Stones: The larger sarsen stones, which form the outer circle and trilithon horseshoe arrangement, are the most prominent features. Each sarsen stone stands up to 30 feet (9 meters) in height and weighs approximately 25 tons. These stones were topped with lintels, creating an impressive continuous architrave.
2. Bluestones: The smaller bluestones, weighing up to 4 tons, are set within the sarsen circle. These stones are believed to have been transported from the Preseli Hills in Wales, over 200 kilometers away, adding to the monument’s enigma.
3. Alterations Over Time: Originally, there were likely 80 stones, but over time, some have fallen, been removed, or buried. Today, 43 of these stones remain visible. The missing stones leave their mark in the form of empty stone sockets, hinting at the monument’s original grandeur.

Engineering Feats

The transportation and erection of these massive stones are feats of prehistoric engineering. The sarsens, sourced locally from the Marlborough Downs, required immense effort to shape and move. The bluestones’ journey from Wales suggests a highly organized society capable of long-distance transportation and intricate planning.

Construction Techniques

1. Erecting the Sarsens: The construction involved creating deep pits for the sarsens, erecting them upright, and then placing the lintels atop using mortise and tenon joints. This technique demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of stonework and engineering principles.
2. Aligning the Bluestones: The smaller bluestones were arranged in a precise geometric pattern, requiring detailed planning and measurement. Their exact placement likely held significant cultural or astronomical significance.

Cultural and Ritualistic Importance

The stones’ arrangement and the effort involved in their placement suggest that Stonehenge served as more than just a monument. It likely held significant ritualistic and cultural importance for its builders. The alignment with celestial events, such as solstices, and the presence of burial sites within the monument indicate its use in ceremonies and as a sacred space.

Ongoing Mysteries

Despite advances in archaeological techniques, many questions about Stonehenge’s stones remain. The exact methods of transportation and erection, the reasons for choosing specific stones, and the full extent of the monument’s original layout are still subjects of research and debate.

RADIOCARBON DATING

Radiocarbon dating has been instrumental in unraveling the chronological history of Stonehenge, providing a scientific basis for understanding when various parts of the monument were constructed and used.

Fundamentals of Radiocarbon Dating

1. Principle: Radiocarbon dating, or carbon-14 dating, is based on the decay of carbon-14, a radioactive isotope of carbon. Living organisms absorb carbon-14 from the atmosphere. When they die, the uptake stops, and the carbon-14 begins to decay at a known rate (half-life of about 5730 years). By measuring the remaining carbon-14 in a sample, the time since the organism’s death can be estimated.
2. Application to Stonehenge: In the context of Stonehenge, radiocarbon dating has been applied to organic materials found at the site, such as charcoal, bones, and plant remains. These materials are often associated with the construction and use phases of Stonehenge, giving insights into the timeline of the monument’s development.

Insights Gained from Radiocarbon Dating

1. Construction Phases: Radiocarbon dating has revealed that Stonehenge was constructed in several phases, spanning over a millennium. The earliest phase, marked by the Aubrey Holes (circular pits), dates back to around 3000 BC. Subsequent phases, involving the erection of sarsens and bluestones, occurred over the following centuries.
2. Human Activity and Burials: Radiocarbon dating of human remains and artifacts has indicated that Stonehenge was used as a burial ground from its earliest phases. The dates obtained from these remains provide a timeline of human activity and ceremonial use at the site.

Challenges and Limitations

While radiocarbon dating is a powerful tool, it does have limitations:

1. Accuracy and Calibration: The accuracy of radiocarbon dating can be affected by fluctuations in the atmospheric concentration of carbon-14 over time. Calibration curves, developed by comparing radiocarbon dates with other dating methods like dendrochronology (tree-ring dating), are used to correct for these variations.
2. Contextual Interpretation: The date obtained from a sample provides the time of death of the organism, not necessarily the time of human activity or construction. Therefore, careful archaeological interpretation is needed to understand the context of the samples.

Advanced Techniques and Developments

Recent advancements have refined radiocarbon dating techniques:

1. Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS): AMS allows for more precise and accurate measurements of carbon-14, even with smaller samples, enhancing the resolution of dating results.
2. Integration with Other Dating Methods: Combining radiocarbon dating with other techniques, such as luminescence dating or stratigraphy, provides a more comprehensive understanding of the chronological framework of archaeological sites like Stonehenge.

ORIGIN OF THE STONES

The origin of the stones used in Stonehenge is a topic of considerable interest in archaeological research, as it provides insights into the capabilities and resources of the Neolithic people. Stonehenge primarily consists of two types of stones: the larger sarsen stones and the smaller bluestones.

Sarsen Stones

1. Geological Composition: Sarsen stones are a type of silcrete, a hard, dense sandstone. They are notable for their size and durability, making them ideal for monumental structures.
2. Sourcing and Transportation: The sarsens are believed to have been sourced locally, with recent studies suggesting they originated from the Marlborough Downs, approximately 20 miles (32 kilometers) north of Stonehenge. The transportation of these massive stones, some weighing up to 25 tons, would have required substantial effort and organization, indicative of the Neolithic people’s engineering capabilities.
3. Techniques for Movement: The exact methods used to transport the sarsen stones remain a subject of debate. Possibilities include dragging the stones on sledges or rollers made from tree trunks, a feat that would have required a coordinated effort from a large group of people.

Bluestones

1. Variety and Composition: The bluestones, smaller in size compared to the sarsens, are of varied geological types, including dolerite, rhyolite, and tuff. These stones are notable for their distinctive blue tinge when wet or freshly broken.
2. Provenance: The primary source of the bluestones has been traced to the Preseli Hills in Pembrokeshire, Wales, over 140 miles (225 kilometers) away from Stonehenge. This discovery has profound implications for our understanding of Neolithic Britain, suggesting long-distance trade routes or pilgrimages.
3. Transportation Mysteries: The journey of the bluestones from Wales to Stonehenge is a subject of much speculation. Theories range from glacial transport during the last Ice Age to human transportation via waterways and overland routes. Recent studies favor human involvement, suggesting the stones could have been transported using rafts along the coast and rivers, followed by overland transportation to the site.

Archaeological and Geological Investigations

1. Petrographic Analysis: Modern petrographic and geochemical analysis of the stones has allowed archaeologists to pinpoint their exact origins. This analysis involves examining the mineral content and structure of the stones to match them with specific quarries.
2. Ancient Quarries: Excavations at identified quarry sites in the Preseli Hills have uncovered evidence of Neolithic stone extraction, such as stone hammers and chisel marks on the rock faces, further supporting the theory of human involvement in the transportation of these stones.

Cultural Implications

The effort required to source, shape, and transport these stones over great distances underscores the cultural and ritual significance of Stonehenge. It suggests a society with sophisticated skills in stonemasonry, logistics, and possibly, a shared religious or cultural impetus that justified such a monumental undertaking.

CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

The construction techniques employed to build Stonehenge reflect a sophisticated understanding of engineering and architecture, remarkable for a society existing over 5000 years ago. These methods highlight the ingenuity and resourcefulness of the Neolithic people.

Preparing the Site and Initial Layout

1. Site Selection and Preparation: The choice of Salisbury Plain as the location for Stonehenge indicates an awareness of its flat terrain, which would have facilitated construction. Early stages likely involved clearing the land and possibly marking out the site’s layout using ropes and wooden posts.
2. Aubrey Holes and Ditch Construction: The first major construction phase involved digging the Aubrey Holes (56 pits forming a circle) and a surrounding ditch, using antler picks and animal shoulder blades as tools. This initial layout provided a template for later stone settings.

Erecting the Sarsen Stones

1. Transportation and Shaping: The sarsen stones, quarried from nearby Marlborough Downs, were transported to the site. Shaping these stones required considerable effort, likely using harder stones as hammers to achieve the desired shape and size.
2. Erecting and Positioning: The stones were possibly moved using a combination of logs, ropes, and man-power. Erecting these stones would have involved digging pits (stone holes), sliding the stones into position, and then packing the pits with smaller stones for stability.
3. Lintel Placement: The lintels, the horizontal stones atop the sarsens, were shaped to have a slight curvature, matching the circle’s overall curvature. These were placed using sophisticated joinery techniques, including mortise and tenon joints, and were likely hoisted into place using a form of wooden scaffolding.

Positioning the Bluestones

1. Transport from Wales: The transportation of bluestones from the Preseli Hills in Wales to Stonehenge is an astonishing feat. It likely involved a combination of overland transport and possibly rafting along waterways.
2. Fine-Tuning and Placement: Once at the site, the bluestones were shaped and positioned within the inner circle and horseshoe arrangement. The exact positioning of these stones suggests a significant astronomical or cultural significance.

Advanced Stoneworking Techniques

1. Shaping and Dressing the Stones: The builders used a variety of stoneworking techniques, including percussion flaking and pecking, to shape the stones. The precision of these methods indicates a high level of skill and an understanding of the properties of different stone types.
2. Interlocking Joints: The use of interlocking joints in the trilithon structures (two vertical sarsens topped by a third horizontal stone) demonstrates advanced understanding in stonework. These joints provided stability and strength to the structure.

Collaboration and Labor

1. Organized Workforce: The construction of Stonehenge would have required a large, well-organized workforce, implying a complex social structure. The labor force would include skilled workers (stone masons, carpenters), laborers, and possibly overseers or planners.
2. Seasonal Work: Evidence suggests that the construction of Stonehenge may have been a seasonal activity, perhaps undertaken during times when agricultural activities were less demanding.

TRANSPORTATION OF THE STONES

The transportation of the massive stones to build Stonehenge remains one of the most intriguing aspects of its construction, demonstrating the Neolithic people’s ingenuity and determination. The methods used to transport these stones over considerable distances are a testament to their advanced understanding of logistics and engineering.

Transporting the Sarsen Stones

1. Local Sourcing: The larger sarsen stones were sourced from the Marlborough Downs, located about 20 miles (32 kilometers) north of Stonehenge. Their proximity somewhat eased the transportation challenges.
2. Moving Techniques: The most likely method for moving these massive stones was by dragging them on sledges or rollers. This would have required a well-organized workforce and possibly the construction of temporary roads. Theories suggest that large groups of people used ropes and wooden beams to gradually move these heavy stones.
3. Leverage and Manpower: The use of levers to lift and position the stones onto sledges or rollers would have been essential. This process would require not just brute strength but also coordination and planning to ensure the safety and efficiency of the transport.

Transporting the Bluestones

1. Long-Distance Travel: The bluestones, originating from the Preseli Hills in Wales, presented a more daunting transportation challenge, covering a distance of over 140 miles (225 kilometers).
2. Overland and Water Transport: It’s theorized that these stones were first transported overland to the nearest waterway and then rafted along the coast and up rivers as close to Stonehenge as possible. The final leg of the journey would again involve overland transportation.
3. Ingenious Navigation: The route would have required careful planning to navigate through the terrain and waterways. The builders likely had a deep understanding of the landscape, including knowledge of the river systems and the tides.

The Role of Technology and Tools

1. Primitive but Effective Tools: The transportation likely relied on tools made from wood, stone, and animal bones. The construction of rafts or sledges would have required skilled carpentry.
2. Use of Lubricants: There is speculation that animal fat or plant oils may have been used as lubricants to reduce friction when dragging stones on sledges.

Community Effort and Social Organization

1. Collaborative Endeavor: The scale of the task implies a large, cooperative effort, likely involving multiple communities. This endeavor would have required not just physical labor but also social organization and communication between groups.
2. Cultural and Ritual Significance: The effort put into transporting these stones suggests they held significant cultural or ritual importance. The journey of the stones may have been as symbolically important as their final placement.

Challenges and Modern Experiments

Modern experimental archaeology has attempted to recreate these transportation methods:

1. Replicating Ancient Techniques: Experiments involving sledges, rollers, and rafts have provided insights into the feasibility of these methods, although replicating the exact conditions and scale of the Neolithic era is challenging.
2. Insights Gained: These experiments have demonstrated that while the transportation of such massive stones is difficult, it is within the realm of possibility for a determined and organized society.

Conclusion

The enigmatic Stonehenge, standing majestically on Salisbury Plain, is not just a testament to the architectural and engineering prowess of Neolithic peoples but also a symbol of their complex social structures, profound spiritual beliefs, and astronomical knowledge. This prehistoric monument, constructed between 3000 to 2000 BC, encapsulates the culmination of various aspects of Neolithic society — from the transition of hunter-gatherer groups to agrarian communities to the influx of ideas and practices brought by migrating peoples across Europe.

Radiocarbon dating has played a pivotal role in demystifying the timeline of Stonehenge’s construction, revealing its development in phases over a millennium. The precision and scale of the work undertaken, such as the transportation of the massive sarsen and bluestone rocks over vast distances, reflect not just technological ingenuity but also a well-orchestrated collaborative effort across communities. The logistical challenges of moving these stones highlight the builders’ deep understanding of their landscape and resources.

Stonehenge’s design — aligning with celestial bodies and marking significant astronomical events — indicates a society deeply attuned to the cosmos. The site, serving various purposes from an astronomical observatory to a ceremonial ground and burial site, underscores its role as a focal point in the cultural and religious life of its builders. The arrangement of the stones, the sophisticated construction techniques, and the ongoing maintenance and alterations of the structure reflect a society capable of detailed planning and sustained effort.

In essence, Stonehenge is more than an ancient monument; it is a bridge connecting us to the past. It offers invaluable insights into the lives, beliefs, and skills of our ancestors. Its enduring mystery continues to captivate and inspire, reminding us of the remarkable capabilities of early human societies. As research continues, using advanced archaeological methods and interdisciplinary approaches, Stonehenge will undoubtedly continue to reveal more about the fascinating Neolithic period and the dawn of human ingenuity and culture.

Resources

https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/places/stonehenge/history-and-stories/building-stonehenge/ — Building Stonehenge

https://www.indusundaresan.com/blog-stonehenge-standing-in-time-part-2/ — Stonehenge: Standing in Time — Part 2

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Stonehenge/First-stage-3000-2935-bce — First stage: 3000–2935 BCE

https://pages.uoregon.edu/jschombe/glossary/stonehenge.html — Stonehenge

https://pixels.com/featured/the-construction-of-stonehenge-mary-evans-picture-library.html — The Construction Of Stonehenge

https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abc0133 — Origins of the sarsen megaliths at Stonehenge

https://phys.org/news/2020-07-mystery-stonehenge-iconic-boulders.html — Mystery solved: Scientists trace source of Stonehenge boulders

https://www.archaeology.wiki/blog/2016/05/31/experiment-might-explain-transport-stonehenge-blocks/ — An experiment might explain the transport of Stonehenge blocks

https://prehistoric-britain.co.uk/the-stonehenge-hoax-moving-the-bluestones — The Stonehenge Hoax — Moving the Bluestones